Who discovered nanoparticles?

Nanoparticles (NPs) are small materials used in multiple industries, including medicine, agriculture, environment, and electronics, due to their unique physical, biological, mechanical, optical, and electrical properties. This article explores the discovery and evolution of nanoparticles and the broader field of nanotechnology.

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Historical applications of nanoparticles

NPs are materials with nanoscale dimensions ranging between 1 and 100 nm.¹ They are classified based on shape, size and other characteristics. NPs can be metallic, non-metallic, polymeric and ceramic. Their high surface area to volume ratio and small size contribute to their unique properties.

The use of NPs dates back to the fourth century AD. In 1990, the Lycurgus cup from the British Museum collection was analyzed using transmission electron microscopy (TEM). This beaker is considered the oldest and most popular example of dichroic glass, where the appearance of two colors was caused by nanoparticles with a diameter of 50-100 nm. X-ray analysis showed that the glass was made of silver and gold in a ratio of 7:3, together with 10% copper.²

During the late Middle Ages, church windows displayed bright red and yellow colors due to the integration of gold and silver NPs into the glass. The glitters and glazes found in the ceramics of the 9th-17th centuries^e centuries were due to the use of silver and copper NPs.³ From the 13^e to the 18^e For centuries, cementite nanowires and carbon nanotubes provided strength and resilience in ‘Damascus’ saber blades.²

Beginnings and evolution of nanotechnology

The concept of nanotechnology was introduced in 1959 by American physicist and Nobel Prize winner Richard Feynman. In his lecture “There’s Plenty of Room at the Bottom,” presented at the annual meeting of the American Physical Society at the California Institute of Technology (Caltech), he highlighted the possibility of using machines to build smaller machines on a molecular scale.⁴

Feynman is seen as the father of modern nanotechnology. He foresaw significant advances in science through nanotechnology, especially in medicine and materials science. He hypothesized that small machines could be programmed to perform complex tasks, such as repairing cells.

However, Feynman highlighted the potential risks of nanotechnology, particularly the challenges of controlling nanosized machines. If not handled carefully, they can cause potential harm to people and the environment.²

In 1974, Norio Taniguchi, a Japanese scientist, was the first to define the term nanotechnology, describing it as the processes of “separation, consolidation and deformation of materials by one atom or one molecule.”⁵

In 1986, K. Eric Drexler published the seminal book ‘Engines of Creation: The Coming Era of Nanotechnology’, which discussed general concepts and methods for synthesizing NPs. This book is considered fundamental to the concept of molecular engineering.

In 1991, Drexler also co-authored “Unbounding the Future: the Nanotechnology Revolution,” which first introduced terms such as “nanobots” and “nanomedicine,” highlighting their potential in medical applications.²

Modern techniques used in the advancement of nanoparticle research

After their discovery, nanostructures were synthesized using top-down and bottom-up methods. NPs developed using these methods vary in quality, speed, and cost.⁶

The top-down method involves breaking down bulk materials to nanoscale sizes, using modern techniques such as precision engineering and lithography. Precision engineering is often used in the microelectronics industry to synthesize NPs. In industrial settings, cubic boron nitride and sensors monitor the size of NPs. Lithography is used to pattern a surface using ions, light and electrons.⁷

In bottom-up methods, nanostructures are created atom by atom or molecule by molecule using physical or chemical techniques. These strategies are primarily aimed at modifying and controlling the self-assembly of molecules or atoms. Positional assembly, another method, involves placing a molecule or atom at an exact location to optimally synthesize NPs with desired properties.⁸

Nanoparticle research accelerated rapidly after the invention of the Scanning Tunneling Microscope (STM) by physicists Gerd Binnig and Heinrich Rohrer of the IBM Zurich Research Laboratory.² STM is used to image and manipulate surfaces at the atomic scale by applying a tunneling current that can break or induce chemical bonds.

The invention of scanning probe microscopes (SPM) and the atomic force microscope (AFM) also played an important role in the advancement of nanotechnology research.⁹

TEM has been crucial in studying hollow graphite tubes or carbon nanotubes (CNT).¹⁰ Due to its superior strength and properties, CNT is exploited in many areas of science and research. Currently, CNTs are used as composite fibers in polymers to improve the thermal, electrical and mechanical properties of the bulk product.

Carbon dots (C-dots) were accidentally discovered in 2004 during the purification of single-walled CNTs. C-dots showed low toxicity and good biocompatibility and have been applied in biosensors, bioimaging and drug delivery.¹¹

Rapid advances in nanoscience have significantly benefited computer science. Nanotechnology has made it possible to reduce the size of large, conventional computers into small, portable laptops. Currently, machine learning algorithms and models have helped design more efficient nanostructures.¹²

Shaping the nanotechnology discourse

Since its inception, nanotechnology has rapidly spread into various scientific and technological fields. It is considered an enabling technology and could trigger a new industrial revolution. The large-scale applications of NPs have led to the creation of many new sub-disciplines, such as nanotoxicology, nanomedicine, nanoelectronics, and nanoethics.

The categorization of nanomaterials based on dimensions has evolved to include one-dimensional, very thin surface coatings, two-dimensional nanotubes and nanowires, and three-dimensional quantum dots and nanoshells.

In addition to technological breakthroughs, governments and policymakers have played a crucial role in shaping the discourse on nanotechnology. The National Nanotechnology Initiative, funded by the U.S. government in 2000, was the first and largest research and development program in nanotechnology.

Given its wide applications and the extent of ongoing research worldwide, nanoscience could help address many global problems.

More from AZoNano: How are nanopores used in protein analysis?

References and further reading

1. Jeevanandam, J., Barhoum, A., Chan Yen San, S., Dufresne, A., Danquah MK. (2018). Overview of nanoparticles and nanostructured materials: history, sources, toxicity and regulations. Beilstein J Nanotechnol. doi.org/10.3762/bjnano.9.98
2. Bayda, S., Adeel, M., Tuccinardi, T., Cordani, M., Rizzolio, F. (2019). The history of nanoscience and nanotechnology: from chemical-physical applications to nanomedicine. Molecules. doi.org/10.3390/molecules25010112
3. Chari CS, Taylor ZW, Bezur A, Xie S, Faber KT. (2022). Nanoscale engineering of gold particles in 18th century Böttger glazes and glazes. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA. doi.org/10.1073/pnas.2120753119
4. Adya, AK., Canetta, E. (2014). Nanotechnology and its applications in animal biotechnology. Animal biotechnology. doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-416002-6.00014-6
5. Aflori M. (2021). Smart nanomaterials for biomedical applications – an overview. Nanomaterials. doi.org/10.3390/nano11020396
6. Khan, I, et al. (2019). Nanoparticles: properties, applications and toxicities. Arabic Journal of Chemistry. doi.org/10.1016/j.arabjc.2017.05.011
7. Khan, Y., et al. (2022). Classification, synthetic and characterization approaches of nanoparticles and their applications in different areas of nanotechnology: a review. Catalysts. doi.org/10.3390/catal12111386
8. Kumar, S., Bhushan, P., Bhattacharya, S. (2017). Fabrication of nanostructures with a bottom-up approach and their usefulness in diagnostics, therapeutics and others. Environmental, chemical and medical sensors. doi.org/10.1007/978-981-10-7751-7_8
9. Tseng, AA., Li, Z. (2007). Manipulations of atoms and molecules by scanning probe microscopy. J Nanosci Nanotechnology. doi.org/10.1166/jnn.2007.624
10. Harris, P.J.F. (2018). Transmission electron microscopy of carbon: a brief history. c. doi.org/10.3390/c4010004
11. Dugam, S., Nangare, S., Patil, P., Jadhav, N. (2021). Carbon dots: a new trend in pharmaceutical applications. Ann Pharm Fr. doi.org/10.1016/j.pharma.2020.12.002
12. Wahl, CB., Aykol, M., Swisher, JH., Montoya, JH., Suram, SK., Mirkin, CA. Machine learning-accelerated design and synthesis of polyelemental heterostructures. Scientific Adv. doi.org/10.1126/sciadv.abj5505

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